Sandawe People: 1 Of The Africa`S Oldest Ethnic Grouping In Addition To The Bushmen Shaman In Addition To Artists Of The Spirit World
The Sandawe are an indigenous hunter-gathering and click-speaking ethnic grouping of Southeast Africa, residing inwards the Kondoa district of Southeast Arusha inwards the Dodoma Region of north-central Tanzania. They remove hold lived predominantly betwixt the Bubu in addition to Mponde rivers for eons earlier Europeans colonized Africa inwards the 18th in addition to 19th centuries. The Sandawe population is currently estimated to live 60,000.
Sandawe hunter with bow in addition to arrow hunting a game at Kondoa, Tanzania. by andreasroksvaag.com
Scholars propose that the ancestors of introduce twenty-four hr time period Hadza (another click-speaking hunter-gatherers) in addition to Sandawe speakers resided inwards the part instantly known equally Tanzania long earlier the arrival of neighboring agricultural in addition to pastoral populations. It is also averred that the herding in addition to cultivating Cushitic (Afro-Asiatic) speakers, who originated from Ethiopia, in addition to starting fourth dimension reached northern Tanzania roughly 4000 years ago, in addition to were also followed yesteryear largely pastoral Nilotic (Nilo-Saharan) speakers, originating from southern Sudan (Newman 1995) came to run across Sandawe people. Anthropologist John A. Cavallo refer to them equally the "bushman shamans in addition to artists of the spirit world" equally a termination of their esoteric practices.
Sandawe elders inwards their Kandoa village, Tanzania
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 highly ambitious genetic study of the rootage of Sandawe conducted yesteryear American molecular biologist Sarah Tishkoff has shown that it is the Sandawe of fundamental Tanzania who possess the oldest deoxyribonucleic acid lineages in addition to who part a mutual ancestry with “the bushmen from the due south of Africa in addition to southern bushmen of Botswana, Namibia, in addition to South Africa... inside nigh 35,000 years.” Tishkoff believes “the southern bushmen [and Sandawe] originated inwards East Africa [probably Ethiopia] in addition to that both are remnants of a real onetime grouping of hunter-gatherers [called proto-Khoisan], maybe the earliest ancestors of modern humans.” From the genetic data, she in addition to her colleagues approximate that modern humans starting fourth dimension emerged nigh 170,000 years ago.
They are reported to live i of the early on settlers who artistically pull the rocks arts inwards Tanzania, especially Mongomi wa Kolo which comprises a complex of grouping of rocks known equally the Basement stone system". Mongomi wa Kolo is purpose of the Kondoa stone fine art World Heritage Site, in addition to is i of the richest areas with a high concentration of stone paintings inwards Tanzania. The sites covert an expanse of 2336 foursquare kilometres including the hamlet of Kolo, Kinyasi, Pahi, Kundusi, Chungai, Chora, Cheke, Kisese, Thlawi, Swera in addition to Bubu River (Kondoa administration programme 2004). The Kondoa stone paintings consist of 3 stone icon traditions: hunter-gatherer, pastoralist in addition to Bantu language-speakers (Masao 1979; Leakey 1983; Anati 1986; Mturi 1998; Smith 1997), each tradition has a distinctive trend in addition to content, in addition to sometimes these 3 traditions are found inwards the same shelter.Mary Leakey (1983) surveyed in addition to documented the stone paintings of Kondoa in addition to reported a broad make of animals depicted yesteryear hunter-gathers inwards stone shelters including giraffe, eland, elephants, antelopes, birds, dogs, rhinoceroses, reedbuck, zebra, kudu, hartebeest, pigs, snake, baboons, wildebeest, buffalo, hares, crocodiles, bat, oryx, tortoise in addition to scorpion. Many of these animals were introduce roughly Kondoa inwards the early on 1900s (Nash 1984).
The Sandawe people remove hold long been considered practiced survivalists during times of nutrient shortages equally a termination of having a potent hunting in addition to gathering tradition. By the fourth dimension of the expeditions of European adventurers/explorers Charles Stokes in addition to Emin Pasha, they had also larn herders in addition to agriculturalists, precisely silent tended to live grouped with the Wagogo people. It was non until the travels of Lt. Prince inwards 1895 that the Sandawe were finally recognized yesteryear Europeans equally a separate people maintaining their independence. Despite their technologically unproblematic culture, European colonists considered them politically in addition to militarily pregnant at to the lowest degree until the plough of the 20th century.
The Sandawe people believe inwards their traditions strongly in addition to hardly depart from from their ancient civilization in addition to tradition. In their traditional religion: "The gods of the Sandawe are activated yesteryear an erotic dance, phek'umo, inwards which the deed of love is mimicked inwards covert yesteryear the dancers. The Luna is seen to live purpose of the bicycle of fertility; inwards the bicycle of months in addition to inwards the menstruum of women...so people trip the low-cal fantastic yesteryear moonlight in addition to adopt stances in addition to postures inwards the trip the low-cal fantastic which stand upwards for the phases of the moon. This trip the low-cal fantastic embeds the necessity for human in addition to globe fertility inwards the body, mind, in addition to spirit of the dancers equally they operate the fields or the banana inwards Tanzania."
The Sandawe were in addition to rest an outgoing people, fond of singing, dancing, making music, in addition to drinking beer, in addition to remove hold an enormous shop of songs. All ceremonials in addition to rituals differed from i another, such equally those of harvest in addition to courtship, equally did those of the curing rituals with their trances, the circumcision festivals, in addition to simba possession dances, inwards which dancers imitated lions inwards monastic tell to fight witchcraft. The Sandawe
silent retain a potent oral tradition, loving to recount stories, which embody the collective wisdom of the group.
Many Sandawe are small, light-boned, in addition to low-cal brown-skinned, or equally Lieutenant Tom von Prince of the High German East Africa Company wrote, 'small in addition to yellowish'; the are also noted for having sparse lips, an epicanthic optic fold, in addition to excessive wrinkling of the peel inwards onetime age. Some, peculiarly women, present signs of steatopygia, or accumulated fatty inwards the buttocks in addition to haunches.
The present-day Sandawe were forced to abandon their hunting in addition to gathering agency of life several decades agone in addition to are instantly considered “an agricultural ethnic group” An estimated 50,000 of them silent reside inwards the Kondoa District of the Dodoma Region inwards north-central Tanzania betwixt the Maponde in addition to Bubu rivers. Although some remove hold been influenced yesteryear Christianity in addition to Islam a bulk are said to silent exercise their
animistic faith which includes, amid many other commonalities, worship of the Luna in addition to harmony with nature, similar to that of the South African Bushmen.
Geography
The master copy vegetation of Kondoa consisted of savannah woodland with modest pockets of montane wood in addition to savannah grassland (Kessy 2005). The master copy vegetation has been subjected to many centuries of human activities such equally cultivation, grazing, burn downward in addition to wood harvesting. The programme Hifadhi Ardhi
Dodoma (HADO)2 intervened inwards 1980s in addition to helped to regenerate natural vegetation. The natural vegetation of Kondoa supported a diverseness of wild animals that was exploited yesteryear hunter-gatherer societies.
The introduce twenty-four hr time period vegetation is dominated yesteryear savannah grassland, miombo woodland, scrub and, inwards a few areas, thickets. The mutual trees are Brachystegia sp., Pterocarpus sp., Angloensis sp., Dicanthium sp. in addition to Baobab sp. In the valleys Acacia kirkii, Tortillis sp. in addition to Delenix alata sp. are mutual trees (Aitken 1950). The ridge crests with their granite outcroppings in addition to sparse stony soil do non back upwards much to a greater extent than than a handful of thorny shrubs of Preudo posoppis, Combretum, Burthia, Grewia in addition to Bussia sp. (Aitken 1950).
Generally the climatic designing inwards Central Tanzania is determined yesteryear the displace of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) betwixt the northern in addition to the southern hemisphere (Christiansson 1981). On this reason Kondoa experiences a rainfall government betwixt 600mm in addition to 800mm with an annual average of 640mm. The rainy flavor is betwixt October/November in addition to March/April with a brusk dry out spell inwards between, in
Jan in addition to Feb (Mung’ong’o 1999). The genuine dry out flavor lasts betwixt 6 to viii months from May to October. The modest rivers, such equally the river Kolo at Mongomi wa Kolo, are ephemeral, flowing during in addition to later downpours. There were seasonal swamps precisely these remove hold silted upwards due to deposition of eroded materials from latterly cleared sections of highland. Mongomi wa Kolo thence sits inwards a wooded
landscape with seasonal water.
Traditional origin
According to Sandawe oral history "The Sandawe entered the reason (Tanzania) which they instantly inhabit nigh a century ago, most of it beingness so unoccupied. They came from a part called Mambaka inwards south-western Usandawe nigh Ugogo, where a few silent live. The master copy Sandawe were lighter inwards peel coloring than are those of today. * They were at i fourth dimension hunters, without stock or agriculture, precisely they collected in addition to ate wild dear equally good equally edible roots. Some 5 hundred years agone they met Nyaturu in addition to Tatogat with cattle (humbu, a corruption of the Nyaturu ng'ombe). These the Sandawe at starting fourth dimension took to live wild beasts in addition to wished to hunt precisely did non do so when it was seen that they were tended yesteryear humans. The Sandawe were taught stock-keeping yesteryear the Nyaturu in addition to the Tatoga, from whom they acquired cattle,sheep in addition to goats inwards commutation for their women.
The bridewealth was iv cattle (five inwards the illustration of a virgin) in addition to viii sheep or goats. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 sheep or a caprine animal was eaten at the union feast. The Nyaturu also instructed the Sandawe inwards husbandry, equally the Tatoga were so purely pastoral. About iv hundred in addition to 50 years ago, later the Sandawe had almost abandoned hunting, at that spot was a severe famine, caused yesteryear failure of the rains. Perhaps half the tribe, which was smaller than it is now, left Usandawe, never to live heard of again. Those remaining had their stock stolen yesteryear the Nyaturu in addition to the Tatoga, in addition to they began i time to a greater extent than to hunt in addition to to collect honey. The famine'lasted 7 years, inwards the course of study of which some Sandawe became serfs to the Nyaturu. Others, at the halt of it, returned to agriculture. There remove hold been 3 subsequent famines, the first, due to locusts, 50 years ago, the minute at the halt of the 1914-1918 war, in addition to the 3rd inwards 1942-43. Over 50 Sandawe clans (boyo) exist, some of which convey their names from nearby hills. In the early on days at that spot were non chiefs precisely exclusively clan councils. The Alagwa clan of Tatoga rootage were rainmakers. The Elewa were one-half Gogo. The Bisa are a Sandawe clan speaking a linguistic communication allied to Ngomvia. It is non surely who made the rock-paintings inwards Usandawe precisely " people say the Portuguese." (http://in-africa.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/Trevor-1947-JRAI-Sandawe.pdf)
Sandawe people
Language
About 60,000 population of Sandawe people speaks i of the Africa`s click language in the Dodoma part of Tanzania. African click languages remove hold been classified into 5 groups: Ju, !Ui-Taa, Khoe, Sandawe, in addition to Hadza (Ehret 2000; Güldemann in addition to Vossen 2000). Linguists oft grouping the Ju, Khoe, in addition to !Ui-Taa languages into a southern African Khoisan (SAK) branch in addition to consider the eastern African Hadza in addition to Sandawe click languages to live to a greater extent than distantly related (Heine in addition to Nurse 2000). However, recent investigations (Güldemann forthcoming) propose that Sandawe may live related to the Khoe menage unit of measurement regardless of the validity of Khoesan equally a whole.
Language exercise is vigorous amid both adults in addition to children, with people inwards some areas monolingual. Sandawe had mostly been classified equally a fellow member of the defunct Khoisan menage unit of measurement since Albert Drexel inwards the 1920s, due to the presence of clicks inwards the language.
Sandawe has ii main dialects, the differences betwixt which are ‘slight in addition to gradual’ (ten Raa 1970:147) in addition to include speech communication speed in addition to other pronunciation features, lexis, grammatical phenomena in addition to the exercise of taboo language. Speakers of dissimilar dialects study no problems with mutual intelligibility. The ii dialects are referred to hither equally western Sandawe in addition to eastern Sandawe, corresponding to Dtelha (‘proper Sandawe’) in addition to Bisa (‘uncouth Sandawe’) inwards x Raa’s operate (1970:131). Western Sandawe tin live farther divided into ii sub-varieties, with i beingness labelled western in addition to the other central. The differences betwixt these ii varieties are non equally considerable equally those which differentiate the western in addition to eastern dialects.
Most Sandawe also verbalize Swahili to a degree that allows basic conversation with neighbouring peoples. Swahili competency depends partly on geographical location, with the Sandawe living inwards to a greater extent than remote areas beingness less probable to know Swahili well, in addition to partly on historic time period in addition to instruction level, with older in addition to less educated Sandawe beingness less familiar with Swahili.(click here: http://www-01.sil.org/silepubs/Pubs/52718/52718_EatonH_Sandawe_Grammar.pdf)
History
The Sandawe today are considered descendants of an master copy Bushman-like people. They and may part a mutual ancestor with the Khoe speaking people of southern Africa. Sandawe people had lived inwards Tanzania for many years earlier the Iron-age Bantu people came to settle inwards East Africa.
Agricultural Bantu (Niger-Kordofanian) speakers, originating from West Africa, reached northwestern Tanzania ∼2,500 years agone (Newman 1995). According to Iliffe (1979), the linguistically in addition to culturally divergent groups of Tanzania interacted extensively next their arrival inwards the region, in addition to ethnic labels remove hold been highly fluid, suggesting that at that spot mightiness live lilliputian genetic deviation amid whatsoever of the Tanzanian populations.
The Sandawe, who currently alive inside 150 km of the Hadza, are the exclusively other population inwards eastern Africa whose linguistic communication has been classified equally purpose of the Khoisan linguistic communication family. Series of genetic research has been performed on both mtDNA in addition to Y chromosome variation of the Sandawe, Hadza, in addition to neighboring Tanzanian populations.
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 novel genetic information present that the Sandawe in addition to southern African click speakers part rare mtDNA in addition to Y chromosome haplogroups; however, mutual ancestry of the 2 populations dates dorsum >35,000 years. These information also betoken that mutual ancestry of the Hadza in addition to Sandawe populations dates dorsum >15,000 years. These findings propose that at the fourth dimension of the spread of agriculture in addition to pastoralism, the click-speaking populations were already isolated from i some other in addition to are consistent with relatively deep linguistic deviation amid the respective click languages.
During the mid-19th century, when Deutschland began to colonize sub-Saharan Africa, some Sandawe clans used their prestige equally rainmakers to lay claim to chiefly status, precisely were never actually accepted equally such. Others defied European dominion in addition to the volume migrations of arriving colonists roughly them. The Germans were told that a human being named Mtoro wielded some authority. He was officially made headman or leader of the latterly established Nyamwezi colony.
The Sandawe so hated Mtoro in addition to the Nyamwezi settlers that they threw them out inwards 1902, seizing their cattle. Lieutenant Kohlerman was called to go along the peace in addition to inside 3 days killed 800 Sandawe men, reportedly without suffering a casualty, spell a minute expedition so came in addition to captured 1,100 cattle. The district commander reported 'progress':
The rock-strewn reason of Usandawe...is inhabited yesteryear a silent thoroughly warlike, predatory, in addition to unexplored mount people whose members do non recognize High German rule, alive far apart in addition to tolerate no headmen or superiors, in addition to remove hold hereto rid themselves inwards drastic fashion of those experimentally installed yesteryear the station. We instantly remove hold the province of affairs good inwards hand.
Encouraged, the High German colony withdrew its military. But the Sandawe attacked equally the soldiers left, announcing a willingness to human face upwards a novel expedition, in addition to began harassing the Nyamwezi. In the end, the Sandawe were 'pacified', in addition to 22 headmen were appointed chiefs, mainly from the traditional rainmaking clans. One of the headmen said, "If whatsoever i defies my order, I volition appeal to the European Sergeant Linke. He is i who punishes with fetters in addition to the whip....Therefore, my people reckon that yous alive inwards peace."
With the halt of colonialism, however, the establishment of chiefdom chop-chop crumbled in addition to disappeared. In telling their stories, the Sandawe seat with modest animals that exercise their cunning in addition to word to outwit their unsafe in addition to to a greater extent than powerful enemies. As Tom von Prince understood it inwards his volume Gegen Araber und Wahehe, "the deathly fright that must remove hold existed to drive these people thousands of kilometers from their homes due south of the equator, into the middle of countless foreign tribes to observe peace, tin exclusively live guessed at."
Economy
The Sandawe are hunter-gatherers. They cultivate the soil with a mattock, fertilize with manure, in addition to go along cattle, sheep, in addition to goats. The men clear the land, tend the animals, in addition to hunt, spell the women do the tillage in addition to nutrient gathering.
The staple nutrient is millet, supplemented with fat, milk, in addition to butter, meat beingness rarely eaten.
Socio-political in addition to Cultural practices
For some 30,000 years, archaeological show indicates they were the exclusively human inhabitants of Tanzania along with Hazabes. They lived inwards modest menage unit of measurement groups of nigh 25 men, women in addition to children. Households, each comprising a nuclear family, are organized into patrilineal exogamous clans that shape the reason for autonomous local communities.
They hunted with bows in addition to arrows tipped with deadly toxicant that enabled them to kill real large prey, such equally giraffe in addition to eland in addition to fifty-fifty give the axe large carnivores from kills to scavenge flesh from the carcasses. Smaller game was caught inwards traps or snares. However, lx to lxxx pct of their diet consisted of a broad diverseness of seasonally available flora foods. Large animals required cooperative communal hunts. When i was killed, the hunter whose poisoned arrow penetrated deep plenty to permit the toxicant to work, owned the kill. It was so his responsibleness to oversee its distribution alongside the residue of the hunters in addition to the community. Sharing in addition to gift-giving were strongly emphasized.
Anthropologists assort them equally a “band society” inwards which at that spot are no elected leaders, chiefs, or spokespersons. Social determined yesteryear the full general consensus of all adult or near-adult members, irrespective of sex. The condition of women was relatively equal to that of men.
Many aspects of their civilization present the influence of their Bantu neighbours. Their isolated wooden houses with roofs of clay are built inwards the lee of the wind. Their traditional clothing were of hika-grass, feathers, in addition to hides, in addition to the dominant cosmetic practices include shaving of hair, earlobe piercing, in addition to human face tattooing.
Marriage, which is monogamous in addition to requires bridewealth, is forbidden with parallel cousins in addition to preferred with the maternal uncle’s daughter. Residence is patrilocal, oft later an initial time period nigh the wife’s parents.
Religious Belief
The Sandawe believe inwards a Supreme beingness in addition to Creator God known equally Warongwe, who was so abstract, distant, in addition to unrelated to the well-being of normal life that it was rarely prayed to or given sacrifices. Their organized faith consisted of a long work of ancestors in addition to a strongly-knit extended menage unit of measurement organisation that mediated betwixt living beings in addition to a real remote all-powerful God.
Spirits are silent believed to occupy stone shelters in addition to shallow caves inwards the hills in addition to are respected in addition to fifty-fifty feared. So equally non to disturb these spirits, the stone shelters were avoided yesteryear all precisely their shamans; no animals
were herded there, in addition to no wood cutting or twig broken. Once a yr the Wasandawe would go to the caves to sacrifice inwards monastic tell to brand surely the spirits would non live spiteful in addition to interfere with the full general good being. In the hills, groups of people would scream prayers to the spirits, assuring them that no i had come upwards to disturb
them, precisely had come upwards to pay their respects.
These prayers were shouted equally loudly equally possible, to brand surely that the spirits could remove heed them.
The Sandawe present nifty reverence for bees, honey, in addition to also honor for modest cunning animals who outwitted larger enemies. Part human-part brute figures representing transformed shamans (called
“their anthropes”) are quite mutual inwards Kondoa.
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 pose out of cultural attributes of the Sandawe are similar to those of the southern San. This included the Sandawe girl’s puberty ritual (the phek’umo) in addition to the southern San eland bull dance. Both rituals involved women bending over in addition to suggestively bearing their buttocks to attract the manly soul dancers. According to anthropologist Eric x Raa, what the Sandawe women were inwards fact doing inwards this ritual, was re-enacting “the role of the Luna inwards the basic creation tradition, according to which, the Luna entices the Sun into the heaven for
the starting fourth dimension celestial copulation.
The whole rite is held nether the aegis of the Luna in addition to has the explicit purpose of ‘making the reason fertile.’’ It is also believed to command the fertility bicycle inwards women. There are other Sandawe beliefs that venerate the stars in addition to the seasons. Like the San, they also revered the praying mantis who was considered the divine messenger of god.
The Sandawe simbo rituals involves fierce trance sense equally good equally surely beliefs in addition to metaphors, like
transformation into a lion.” The bulk of Sandawe shamans induced trance (also known equally altered states of consciousness) through vigorous all-night ritual dancing, sometimes lasting upwards to twenty-four hours, accompanied yesteryear the singing in addition to clapping of women. Eventually the dancers suffered the effects of this action inwards the shape of dehydration in addition to hyperventilation that led to stiffening of the muscles and, finally, bodily
collapse. At that point, shamans are said to remove hold left their bodies, transformed into animals in addition to traveled to the spirit populace that existed beneath in addition to to a higher seat the existent world. This enabled them to larn supernatural potency in addition to negotiate with deities, their deceased ancestors in addition to battle evil spirits for the do goodness of their communities.
Returning to the fabric populace with their newly acquired power, they were able to cure sickness, brand rain, command the movements of game animals so their hunters could successfully ambush them, restore in addition to maintain harmony inwards their communities, in addition to perform other vital tasks. Upon recovering from trance, they painted their cosmological experiences on the walls of stone shelters.
SOURCE:http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/24/10/2180.full
http://nitokesafaris.com/Tutoke_Magazine_Issue_1.pdf
Sandawe hunter with bow in addition to arrow hunting a game at Kondoa, Tanzania. by andreasroksvaag.com
Scholars propose that the ancestors of introduce twenty-four hr time period Hadza (another click-speaking hunter-gatherers) in addition to Sandawe speakers resided inwards the part instantly known equally Tanzania long earlier the arrival of neighboring agricultural in addition to pastoral populations. It is also averred that the herding in addition to cultivating Cushitic (Afro-Asiatic) speakers, who originated from Ethiopia, in addition to starting fourth dimension reached northern Tanzania roughly 4000 years ago, in addition to were also followed yesteryear largely pastoral Nilotic (Nilo-Saharan) speakers, originating from southern Sudan (Newman 1995) came to run across Sandawe people. Anthropologist John A. Cavallo refer to them equally the "bushman shamans in addition to artists of the spirit world" equally a termination of their esoteric practices.
Sandawe elders inwards their Kandoa village, Tanzania
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 highly ambitious genetic study of the rootage of Sandawe conducted yesteryear American molecular biologist Sarah Tishkoff has shown that it is the Sandawe of fundamental Tanzania who possess the oldest deoxyribonucleic acid lineages in addition to who part a mutual ancestry with “the bushmen from the due south of Africa in addition to southern bushmen of Botswana, Namibia, in addition to South Africa... inside nigh 35,000 years.” Tishkoff believes “the southern bushmen [and Sandawe] originated inwards East Africa [probably Ethiopia] in addition to that both are remnants of a real onetime grouping of hunter-gatherers [called proto-Khoisan], maybe the earliest ancestors of modern humans.” From the genetic data, she in addition to her colleagues approximate that modern humans starting fourth dimension emerged nigh 170,000 years ago.
They are reported to live i of the early on settlers who artistically pull the rocks arts inwards Tanzania, especially Mongomi wa Kolo which comprises a complex of grouping of rocks known equally the Basement stone system". Mongomi wa Kolo is purpose of the Kondoa stone fine art World Heritage Site, in addition to is i of the richest areas with a high concentration of stone paintings inwards Tanzania. The sites covert an expanse of 2336 foursquare kilometres including the hamlet of Kolo, Kinyasi, Pahi, Kundusi, Chungai, Chora, Cheke, Kisese, Thlawi, Swera in addition to Bubu River (Kondoa administration programme 2004). The Kondoa stone paintings consist of 3 stone icon traditions: hunter-gatherer, pastoralist in addition to Bantu language-speakers (Masao 1979; Leakey 1983; Anati 1986; Mturi 1998; Smith 1997), each tradition has a distinctive trend in addition to content, in addition to sometimes these 3 traditions are found inwards the same shelter.Mary Leakey (1983) surveyed in addition to documented the stone paintings of Kondoa in addition to reported a broad make of animals depicted yesteryear hunter-gathers inwards stone shelters including giraffe, eland, elephants, antelopes, birds, dogs, rhinoceroses, reedbuck, zebra, kudu, hartebeest, pigs, snake, baboons, wildebeest, buffalo, hares, crocodiles, bat, oryx, tortoise in addition to scorpion. Many of these animals were introduce roughly Kondoa inwards the early on 1900s (Nash 1984).
Sandawe girl
The Sandawe people remove hold long been considered practiced survivalists during times of nutrient shortages equally a termination of having a potent hunting in addition to gathering tradition. By the fourth dimension of the expeditions of European adventurers/explorers Charles Stokes in addition to Emin Pasha, they had also larn herders in addition to agriculturalists, precisely silent tended to live grouped with the Wagogo people. It was non until the travels of Lt. Prince inwards 1895 that the Sandawe were finally recognized yesteryear Europeans equally a separate people maintaining their independence. Despite their technologically unproblematic culture, European colonists considered them politically in addition to militarily pregnant at to the lowest degree until the plough of the 20th century.
Sandawe woman
The Sandawe people believe inwards their traditions strongly in addition to hardly depart from from their ancient civilization in addition to tradition. In their traditional religion: "The gods of the Sandawe are activated yesteryear an erotic dance, phek'umo, inwards which the deed of love is mimicked inwards covert yesteryear the dancers. The Luna is seen to live purpose of the bicycle of fertility; inwards the bicycle of months in addition to inwards the menstruum of women...so people trip the low-cal fantastic yesteryear moonlight in addition to adopt stances in addition to postures inwards the trip the low-cal fantastic which stand upwards for the phases of the moon. This trip the low-cal fantastic embeds the necessity for human in addition to globe fertility inwards the body, mind, in addition to spirit of the dancers equally they operate the fields or the banana inwards Tanzania."
The Sandawe were in addition to rest an outgoing people, fond of singing, dancing, making music, in addition to drinking beer, in addition to remove hold an enormous shop of songs. All ceremonials in addition to rituals differed from i another, such equally those of harvest in addition to courtship, equally did those of the curing rituals with their trances, the circumcision festivals, in addition to simba possession dances, inwards which dancers imitated lions inwards monastic tell to fight witchcraft. The Sandawe
silent retain a potent oral tradition, loving to recount stories, which embody the collective wisdom of the group.
Many Sandawe are small, light-boned, in addition to low-cal brown-skinned, or equally Lieutenant Tom von Prince of the High German East Africa Company wrote, 'small in addition to yellowish'; the are also noted for having sparse lips, an epicanthic optic fold, in addition to excessive wrinkling of the peel inwards onetime age. Some, peculiarly women, present signs of steatopygia, or accumulated fatty inwards the buttocks in addition to haunches.
The present-day Sandawe were forced to abandon their hunting in addition to gathering agency of life several decades agone in addition to are instantly considered “an agricultural ethnic group” An estimated 50,000 of them silent reside inwards the Kondoa District of the Dodoma Region inwards north-central Tanzania betwixt the Maponde in addition to Bubu rivers. Although some remove hold been influenced yesteryear Christianity in addition to Islam a bulk are said to silent exercise their
animistic faith which includes, amid many other commonalities, worship of the Luna in addition to harmony with nature, similar to that of the South African Bushmen.
Geography
The master copy vegetation of Kondoa consisted of savannah woodland with modest pockets of montane wood in addition to savannah grassland (Kessy 2005). The master copy vegetation has been subjected to many centuries of human activities such equally cultivation, grazing, burn downward in addition to wood harvesting. The programme Hifadhi Ardhi
Dodoma (HADO)2 intervened inwards 1980s in addition to helped to regenerate natural vegetation. The natural vegetation of Kondoa supported a diverseness of wild animals that was exploited yesteryear hunter-gatherer societies.
The introduce twenty-four hr time period vegetation is dominated yesteryear savannah grassland, miombo woodland, scrub and, inwards a few areas, thickets. The mutual trees are Brachystegia sp., Pterocarpus sp., Angloensis sp., Dicanthium sp. in addition to Baobab sp. In the valleys Acacia kirkii, Tortillis sp. in addition to Delenix alata sp. are mutual trees (Aitken 1950). The ridge crests with their granite outcroppings in addition to sparse stony soil do non back upwards much to a greater extent than than a handful of thorny shrubs of Preudo posoppis, Combretum, Burthia, Grewia in addition to Bussia sp. (Aitken 1950).
Generally the climatic designing inwards Central Tanzania is determined yesteryear the displace of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) betwixt the northern in addition to the southern hemisphere (Christiansson 1981). On this reason Kondoa experiences a rainfall government betwixt 600mm in addition to 800mm with an annual average of 640mm. The rainy flavor is betwixt October/November in addition to March/April with a brusk dry out spell inwards between, in
Jan in addition to Feb (Mung’ong’o 1999). The genuine dry out flavor lasts betwixt 6 to viii months from May to October. The modest rivers, such equally the river Kolo at Mongomi wa Kolo, are ephemeral, flowing during in addition to later downpours. There were seasonal swamps precisely these remove hold silted upwards due to deposition of eroded materials from latterly cleared sections of highland. Mongomi wa Kolo thence sits inwards a wooded
landscape with seasonal water.
Traditional origin
According to Sandawe oral history "The Sandawe entered the reason (Tanzania) which they instantly inhabit nigh a century ago, most of it beingness so unoccupied. They came from a part called Mambaka inwards south-western Usandawe nigh Ugogo, where a few silent live. The master copy Sandawe were lighter inwards peel coloring than are those of today. * They were at i fourth dimension hunters, without stock or agriculture, precisely they collected in addition to ate wild dear equally good equally edible roots. Some 5 hundred years agone they met Nyaturu in addition to Tatogat with cattle (humbu, a corruption of the Nyaturu ng'ombe). These the Sandawe at starting fourth dimension took to live wild beasts in addition to wished to hunt precisely did non do so when it was seen that they were tended yesteryear humans. The Sandawe were taught stock-keeping yesteryear the Nyaturu in addition to the Tatoga, from whom they acquired cattle,sheep in addition to goats inwards commutation for their women.
The bridewealth was iv cattle (five inwards the illustration of a virgin) in addition to viii sheep or goats. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 sheep or a caprine animal was eaten at the union feast. The Nyaturu also instructed the Sandawe inwards husbandry, equally the Tatoga were so purely pastoral. About iv hundred in addition to 50 years ago, later the Sandawe had almost abandoned hunting, at that spot was a severe famine, caused yesteryear failure of the rains. Perhaps half the tribe, which was smaller than it is now, left Usandawe, never to live heard of again. Those remaining had their stock stolen yesteryear the Nyaturu in addition to the Tatoga, in addition to they began i time to a greater extent than to hunt in addition to to collect honey. The famine'lasted 7 years, inwards the course of study of which some Sandawe became serfs to the Nyaturu. Others, at the halt of it, returned to agriculture. There remove hold been 3 subsequent famines, the first, due to locusts, 50 years ago, the minute at the halt of the 1914-1918 war, in addition to the 3rd inwards 1942-43. Over 50 Sandawe clans (boyo) exist, some of which convey their names from nearby hills. In the early on days at that spot were non chiefs precisely exclusively clan councils. The Alagwa clan of Tatoga rootage were rainmakers. The Elewa were one-half Gogo. The Bisa are a Sandawe clan speaking a linguistic communication allied to Ngomvia. It is non surely who made the rock-paintings inwards Usandawe precisely " people say the Portuguese." (http://in-africa.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/Trevor-1947-JRAI-Sandawe.pdf)
Sandawe people
Language
About 60,000 population of Sandawe people speaks i of the Africa`s click language in the Dodoma part of Tanzania. African click languages remove hold been classified into 5 groups: Ju, !Ui-Taa, Khoe, Sandawe, in addition to Hadza (Ehret 2000; Güldemann in addition to Vossen 2000). Linguists oft grouping the Ju, Khoe, in addition to !Ui-Taa languages into a southern African Khoisan (SAK) branch in addition to consider the eastern African Hadza in addition to Sandawe click languages to live to a greater extent than distantly related (Heine in addition to Nurse 2000). However, recent investigations (Güldemann forthcoming) propose that Sandawe may live related to the Khoe menage unit of measurement regardless of the validity of Khoesan equally a whole.
Language exercise is vigorous amid both adults in addition to children, with people inwards some areas monolingual. Sandawe had mostly been classified equally a fellow member of the defunct Khoisan menage unit of measurement since Albert Drexel inwards the 1920s, due to the presence of clicks inwards the language.
Sandawe has ii main dialects, the differences betwixt which are ‘slight in addition to gradual’ (ten Raa 1970:147) in addition to include speech communication speed in addition to other pronunciation features, lexis, grammatical phenomena in addition to the exercise of taboo language. Speakers of dissimilar dialects study no problems with mutual intelligibility. The ii dialects are referred to hither equally western Sandawe in addition to eastern Sandawe, corresponding to Dtelha (‘proper Sandawe’) in addition to Bisa (‘uncouth Sandawe’) inwards x Raa’s operate (1970:131). Western Sandawe tin live farther divided into ii sub-varieties, with i beingness labelled western in addition to the other central. The differences betwixt these ii varieties are non equally considerable equally those which differentiate the western in addition to eastern dialects.
Most Sandawe also verbalize Swahili to a degree that allows basic conversation with neighbouring peoples. Swahili competency depends partly on geographical location, with the Sandawe living inwards to a greater extent than remote areas beingness less probable to know Swahili well, in addition to partly on historic time period in addition to instruction level, with older in addition to less educated Sandawe beingness less familiar with Swahili.(click here: http://www-01.sil.org/silepubs/Pubs/52718/52718_EatonH_Sandawe_Grammar.pdf)
History
The Sandawe today are considered descendants of an master copy Bushman-like people. They and may part a mutual ancestor with the Khoe speaking people of southern Africa. Sandawe people had lived inwards Tanzania for many years earlier the Iron-age Bantu people came to settle inwards East Africa.
Agricultural Bantu (Niger-Kordofanian) speakers, originating from West Africa, reached northwestern Tanzania ∼2,500 years agone (Newman 1995). According to Iliffe (1979), the linguistically in addition to culturally divergent groups of Tanzania interacted extensively next their arrival inwards the region, in addition to ethnic labels remove hold been highly fluid, suggesting that at that spot mightiness live lilliputian genetic deviation amid whatsoever of the Tanzanian populations.
The Sandawe, who currently alive inside 150 km of the Hadza, are the exclusively other population inwards eastern Africa whose linguistic communication has been classified equally purpose of the Khoisan linguistic communication family. Series of genetic research has been performed on both mtDNA in addition to Y chromosome variation of the Sandawe, Hadza, in addition to neighboring Tanzanian populations.
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 novel genetic information present that the Sandawe in addition to southern African click speakers part rare mtDNA in addition to Y chromosome haplogroups; however, mutual ancestry of the 2 populations dates dorsum >35,000 years. These information also betoken that mutual ancestry of the Hadza in addition to Sandawe populations dates dorsum >15,000 years. These findings propose that at the fourth dimension of the spread of agriculture in addition to pastoralism, the click-speaking populations were already isolated from i some other in addition to are consistent with relatively deep linguistic deviation amid the respective click languages.
During the mid-19th century, when Deutschland began to colonize sub-Saharan Africa, some Sandawe clans used their prestige equally rainmakers to lay claim to chiefly status, precisely were never actually accepted equally such. Others defied European dominion in addition to the volume migrations of arriving colonists roughly them. The Germans were told that a human being named Mtoro wielded some authority. He was officially made headman or leader of the latterly established Nyamwezi colony.
The Sandawe so hated Mtoro in addition to the Nyamwezi settlers that they threw them out inwards 1902, seizing their cattle. Lieutenant Kohlerman was called to go along the peace in addition to inside 3 days killed 800 Sandawe men, reportedly without suffering a casualty, spell a minute expedition so came in addition to captured 1,100 cattle. The district commander reported 'progress':
The rock-strewn reason of Usandawe...is inhabited yesteryear a silent thoroughly warlike, predatory, in addition to unexplored mount people whose members do non recognize High German rule, alive far apart in addition to tolerate no headmen or superiors, in addition to remove hold hereto rid themselves inwards drastic fashion of those experimentally installed yesteryear the station. We instantly remove hold the province of affairs good inwards hand.
Encouraged, the High German colony withdrew its military. But the Sandawe attacked equally the soldiers left, announcing a willingness to human face upwards a novel expedition, in addition to began harassing the Nyamwezi. In the end, the Sandawe were 'pacified', in addition to 22 headmen were appointed chiefs, mainly from the traditional rainmaking clans. One of the headmen said, "If whatsoever i defies my order, I volition appeal to the European Sergeant Linke. He is i who punishes with fetters in addition to the whip....Therefore, my people reckon that yous alive inwards peace."
With the halt of colonialism, however, the establishment of chiefdom chop-chop crumbled in addition to disappeared. In telling their stories, the Sandawe seat with modest animals that exercise their cunning in addition to word to outwit their unsafe in addition to to a greater extent than powerful enemies. As Tom von Prince understood it inwards his volume Gegen Araber und Wahehe, "the deathly fright that must remove hold existed to drive these people thousands of kilometers from their homes due south of the equator, into the middle of countless foreign tribes to observe peace, tin exclusively live guessed at."
Economy
The Sandawe are hunter-gatherers. They cultivate the soil with a mattock, fertilize with manure, in addition to go along cattle, sheep, in addition to goats. The men clear the land, tend the animals, in addition to hunt, spell the women do the tillage in addition to nutrient gathering.
The staple nutrient is millet, supplemented with fat, milk, in addition to butter, meat beingness rarely eaten.
Socio-political in addition to Cultural practices
For some 30,000 years, archaeological show indicates they were the exclusively human inhabitants of Tanzania along with Hazabes. They lived inwards modest menage unit of measurement groups of nigh 25 men, women in addition to children. Households, each comprising a nuclear family, are organized into patrilineal exogamous clans that shape the reason for autonomous local communities.
They hunted with bows in addition to arrows tipped with deadly toxicant that enabled them to kill real large prey, such equally giraffe in addition to eland in addition to fifty-fifty give the axe large carnivores from kills to scavenge flesh from the carcasses. Smaller game was caught inwards traps or snares. However, lx to lxxx pct of their diet consisted of a broad diverseness of seasonally available flora foods. Large animals required cooperative communal hunts. When i was killed, the hunter whose poisoned arrow penetrated deep plenty to permit the toxicant to work, owned the kill. It was so his responsibleness to oversee its distribution alongside the residue of the hunters in addition to the community. Sharing in addition to gift-giving were strongly emphasized.
Anthropologists assort them equally a “band society” inwards which at that spot are no elected leaders, chiefs, or spokespersons. Social determined yesteryear the full general consensus of all adult or near-adult members, irrespective of sex. The condition of women was relatively equal to that of men.
Many aspects of their civilization present the influence of their Bantu neighbours. Their isolated wooden houses with roofs of clay are built inwards the lee of the wind. Their traditional clothing were of hika-grass, feathers, in addition to hides, in addition to the dominant cosmetic practices include shaving of hair, earlobe piercing, in addition to human face tattooing.
Marriage, which is monogamous in addition to requires bridewealth, is forbidden with parallel cousins in addition to preferred with the maternal uncle’s daughter. Residence is patrilocal, oft later an initial time period nigh the wife’s parents.
Religious Belief
The Sandawe believe inwards a Supreme beingness in addition to Creator God known equally Warongwe, who was so abstract, distant, in addition to unrelated to the well-being of normal life that it was rarely prayed to or given sacrifices. Their organized faith consisted of a long work of ancestors in addition to a strongly-knit extended menage unit of measurement organisation that mediated betwixt living beings in addition to a real remote all-powerful God.
Spirits are silent believed to occupy stone shelters in addition to shallow caves inwards the hills in addition to are respected in addition to fifty-fifty feared. So equally non to disturb these spirits, the stone shelters were avoided yesteryear all precisely their shamans; no animals
were herded there, in addition to no wood cutting or twig broken. Once a yr the Wasandawe would go to the caves to sacrifice inwards monastic tell to brand surely the spirits would non live spiteful in addition to interfere with the full general good being. In the hills, groups of people would scream prayers to the spirits, assuring them that no i had come upwards to disturb
them, precisely had come upwards to pay their respects.
These prayers were shouted equally loudly equally possible, to brand surely that the spirits could remove heed them.
The Sandawe present nifty reverence for bees, honey, in addition to also honor for modest cunning animals who outwitted larger enemies. Part human-part brute figures representing transformed shamans (called
“their anthropes”) are quite mutual inwards Kondoa.
Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 pose out of cultural attributes of the Sandawe are similar to those of the southern San. This included the Sandawe girl’s puberty ritual (the phek’umo) in addition to the southern San eland bull dance. Both rituals involved women bending over in addition to suggestively bearing their buttocks to attract the manly soul dancers. According to anthropologist Eric x Raa, what the Sandawe women were inwards fact doing inwards this ritual, was re-enacting “the role of the Luna inwards the basic creation tradition, according to which, the Luna entices the Sun into the heaven for
the starting fourth dimension celestial copulation.
The whole rite is held nether the aegis of the Luna in addition to has the explicit purpose of ‘making the reason fertile.’’ It is also believed to command the fertility bicycle inwards women. There are other Sandawe beliefs that venerate the stars in addition to the seasons. Like the San, they also revered the praying mantis who was considered the divine messenger of god.
The Sandawe simbo rituals involves fierce trance sense equally good equally surely beliefs in addition to metaphors, like
transformation into a lion.” The bulk of Sandawe shamans induced trance (also known equally altered states of consciousness) through vigorous all-night ritual dancing, sometimes lasting upwards to twenty-four hours, accompanied yesteryear the singing in addition to clapping of women. Eventually the dancers suffered the effects of this action inwards the shape of dehydration in addition to hyperventilation that led to stiffening of the muscles and, finally, bodily
collapse. At that point, shamans are said to remove hold left their bodies, transformed into animals in addition to traveled to the spirit populace that existed beneath in addition to to a higher seat the existent world. This enabled them to larn supernatural potency in addition to negotiate with deities, their deceased ancestors in addition to battle evil spirits for the do goodness of their communities.
Returning to the fabric populace with their newly acquired power, they were able to cure sickness, brand rain, command the movements of game animals so their hunters could successfully ambush them, restore in addition to maintain harmony inwards their communities, in addition to perform other vital tasks. Upon recovering from trance, they painted their cosmological experiences on the walls of stone shelters.
SOURCE:http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/24/10/2180.full
http://nitokesafaris.com/Tutoke_Magazine_Issue_1.pdf
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