The Ovambo people (sometimes called Owambo) are an amalgamation of various agricultural Bantu-speaking people occupying international border regions of southern Republic of Angola too northern Namibia, popularly known equally Ovamboland. The Ovambo people are past times far the largest ethnic grouping inwards Namibia too brand upwards exactly over one-half the population.

Ovambo people performing traditional dance

The Ovambo are component of the larger Southwestern Bantu grouping (Murdock 1959), too consist of 12 culturally related peoples - originally kingdoms. In northern Namibia reside the Ovakwanyama, Ondonga, Ukwambi, Ongandjera, Ombalantu, Ukwaludhi, Uukolonkahdi too Eunda (Hahn 1928:1; Tuupainen 1970:12). The Ovakwanyama, Evale, Dombondola, Kafima too Ombadja (a divided kingdom nether 2 different ruling clans), inhabit the southern Angolan part (Estermann 1976:51, 117).

Of the 12 peoples, the Ovakwanyama too the Ondonga (occupying eastern Ovamboland) are larger

too to a greater extent than prosperous than the smaller Ovambo groups to the west. They are also ameliorate documented inwards the source literature (Loeb 1962:18).

Ovambo children from Namibia

The Owambo is actively involved inwards the politics of Namibia. SWAPO (South West Africa People's Organisation), the electrical flow ruling political party started equally non-violent pressure level grouping inwards Ovamboland too was led past times tow peachy Ovambo people, Herman Toivo ya Toivo too Samuel Shafiishuna Nujoma (the showtime elected president). The electrical flow President Hifikepunye Pohamba is also an Ovambo.

Ovambo people

Their language, Oshivambo (sometimes known equally Ambo or Vambo inwards Namibia), is Bantu based. The peachy bulk alive inwards their traditional areas – Owamboland – away from the main carry arteries inwards the remote far due north of the country, straddled on the border with Angola.

Elderly Ovambo woman Ruacana - Namibia. www.fotopedia.com

The Name Ovambo (Owambo)/Geography

It is maintained inwards the source literature that the Ovambo owe their hollo to their neighbours the Herero. Tuupainen (1970:12) states that the term ‘Ovambo’ is derived from the Herero ovajamba, pregnant ‘wealthy-people’, whilst Loeb (1962:9) claims that inwards Herero dialect ‘ovambo’ agency ‘people-with-the-cattle-posts’, because the Ovambo had to graze their cattle due north too eastward of the living area.

Although the 2 interpretations of the term differ, what is of import is that they both comprise a reference to Ovambo economical prosperity too relative political mightiness based on ivory trading (jamba: elephant) too pastoralism/cattle raiding.

The Nyaneka-Nkhumbi peoples on the western banking concern of the Kunene river are closely related to the

Ovambo too have got skillful trading relations with them. The Ovambo also merchandise with the Damara farther southward (in Namibia). The Herero too the Ovambo part mutual ancestral mythology. Both peoples cherish anomborombonga tree inwards eastern Ovamboland, which they consider marks the identify where their founding ancestors (two brothers) parted companionship to shape the right away distinct cultural groups. Both peoples migrated from the Zambesi river region, too upon reaching what is right away the Ovambo part i blood brother too his followers decided to remain too settle the area, spell the other together with his followers (the Herero) continued westwards inwards search of ameliorate pasture-land (Hahn 1928:1; Williams 1988:90). It has been assumed on the footing of regal genealogies that the inwards a higher identify migration took identify sometime during the sixteenth century. Aarni (1982:23) too Williams (1988) have got attempted to institute the migration routes on the footing of available archaeological, oral historical, linguistic too onomastic data. The Okavango peoples of eastern southern Republic of Angola are also culturally related to the Ovambo, too i time formed i kingdom ruled past times the Hyena clan, sharing mutual ancestry with the same clan inwards Ovambo (Williams 1988:23, 89-91).

The Ovambo fifty-fifty claim a distant association with neighbouring hunter-gatherer communities, which may inwards component business concern human relationship for their skillful relations with them. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 number of Ovambo proverbs refer to the fourth dimension when Ovambo were Twa (i.e. hunter-gatherers) (Kuusi 1970; Estermann 1976:55-57).

Ovamboland (The Ovambo Region)

Ovamboland is located on an alluvial floodplain most 1,200m inwards a higher identify ocean level, which slopes gently from

the due north (Duparquet 1935:125; Loeb 1948:16). In Namibia the Ovambo surface area covers 56,000 sq km (Aarni 1982:22), betwixt Latitudes 17.30 S too 18.30 S, too Longtitudes 14.00 E too 17.30 E (Tuupainen 1970:12). The surface area close the border with Republic of Angola is characterised past times thick belts of sub-tropical vegetation, spell large, opened upwards grass plains are found farther to the southward equally the surroundings assumes a to a greater extent than semi-desert appearance, due to the increased salinity of the soil (Loeb 1948:17). The eastern surface area is also thickly wooded, dissimilar the western surface area which is primarily opened upwards savanna fringed with bush.

The Ovambo surface area inwards Namibia extends equally far due north equally the international boundary with Angola, too almost equally far southward equally the Etosha Pan (Hahn 1928:1; Loeb 1948:17).

In Angola, Ovambo territory is situated betwixt the Kunene too Okavango rivers (west too eastward respectively), too extends roughly 200 km northwards from the Angola-Namibia border, principally along the banks of the Kuvelai river (running through Handa, Evale too Kwanyama country) (Delachaux too Thiebaud 1933:8-9).

Generally speaking, the Ovambo peoples inwards the due north (i.e. southern Angola) savour ameliorate living weather condition equally a effect of the sub-tropical arboreal environment, which is straight attributable to the greater abundance of H2O due to the proximity of the permanent Kunene too Okavango rivers too seasonal river Kuvelai. The Ovambo Earth equally a whole is served past times a network of broad, shallow H2O courses too pools known equally ooshana, which are tributaries that fan out from the Kuvelai river originating exactly exterior Handa territory.

During the moisture season, pelting too overflowing waters from the 2 permanent rivers inwards the part enable the oshana network to furnish the Ovambo with 6-7 months of H2O during the dry out flavor inwards a skillful year.

Years of abundant rainfall are known equally efundja too are much celebrated since they occur infrequently (Tuupainen 1970:16). Hahn (1928:1) states that next a skillful moisture flavor upwards to three-fifths of the Earth may larn submerged for quite some time.

As the oshana network progresses southwards, through northern Namibia, its intersecting character

increases inwards complexity. Wider H2O channels too pools are replaced past times narrower, to a greater extent than numerous streams, which dwindle farther before petering out into the Etosha Pan (Estermann 1976:53). The Ovambo are heavily dependent on pelting for the provision of skillful grazing areas, too the success of their millet too sorghum crops. However, rainfall is often pitiable - fifty-fifty absent - some years, leading to severe H2O shortage too frequent drought. Two moisture seasons are recognised past times Ovambo: a brusk rainy flavor from Oct to Nov (when grain fields are prepared inwards advance of pelting proper), followed past times a longer i from Dec to March. Rain rarely falls during all of these months, the overall amount averaging most 400mm. Water conservation, therefore, becomes a major priority too is largely achieved past times the construction too maintainance of wells too reservoirs throughout the region, together with careful regulation of H2O use. They are built to supplement the ooshana, when the latter get down to dry out up. Because the H2O tabular array is quite unopen to the surface, the Ovambo rarely have got to dig deeper than 3-7 metres to compass H2O for domestic use. Such wells are unremarkably unlined, too are conical inwards pattern due to sandiness of the soil which disturbs easily (Loeb 1948:17; Hahn 1928:1; Aarni 1982:22; Rodin 1985:40).

Ovambo sparrowhawk

Despite the irregular grapheme of the region’s H2O supply, the oshana scheme nevertheless ensured

the abundance of various types of flora that were widely used past times the Ovambo equally food, medicines, manufacturing materials too fuel. Estermann (1976:53-54) informs us that the best vegetation was found along the edges of the regulation ooshana, inwards the cardinal surface area of Ovamboland occupied past times the Ovakwanyama, inwards southern Angola. Away from the water-courses the Earth assumed wood growth similar to that found W of the Kunene river. Estermann classifies the wood into 2 main types, distinguishable on the footing of the soil inwards which each grows. It would seem that he has followed the distinction made past times Ovambo themselves, equally he provides us with the Ovambo terms for the wood types. Thus nosotros have got the wood of the sandy plains, omufitu, inwards which Burkeas, Pterocarpus too Endandrophragma species predominate. Then at that spot is that thriving inwards to a greater extent than clayey soil, omuhenye, typical of the southern Angolan bush: Excoecana africana too Colophospermum mopane, with some Terminalia species. Occurring inwards all soil types are the gigantic

Adansonia digitata (baobab) trees. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 number of fruit trees flourish inwards the part which are regarded equally a

valuable nutrient source too much respected past times Ovambo. These include: Schlerocarya birrea, Diospyros

mespiliformis, Ficus sycomoros too Berchemia discolor. Fan palms (Hyphaene ventricosa) grace the

area, although most of the mature palms were destroyed during the peachy famine of 1915, when Ovambo were forced to occupation the trunks equally a major source of nutrient (Estermann 1976:54).

Language

Ovambo people speak Oshiwambo, a Bantu linguistic communication which belongs the larger Niger-Congo phylum. It include the Oshikwanyama, Oshingandjera, Oshimbadja, Oshindonga too other dialects. Over 2 1000000 people inwards Namibia too Republic of Angola beak Oshiwambo too over one-half of the people inwards Namibia beak Oshiwambo, especially the Ovambo people.

The linguistic communication is closely related to that of the Hereros too Himba, Otjiherero. An obvious sign of proximity is the prefix used for linguistic communication too dialect names, Proto-Bantu *ki- (class 7, equally inwards Ki-Swahili), which inwards Herero has evolved to Otji- too inwards Ovambo farther to Oshi-.

Namibian president Hifikepunye Pohamba is Owambo man

Linguistically, the Ovambo tin hold out divided broadly into 2 groups. The showtime includes the Ovakwanyama too all the southern Angolan peoples, whose dialect is known equally Oshikwanyama too distinguished, for example, past times the plural prefix ova for ‘people’ - equally inwards ovakulunhu (elders). The minute includes the Ondonga too all the remaining Ovambo peoples, the dialect known equally Oshindonga with a plural prefix aa for ‘people’, e.g. Aandonga (Loeb 1962:6). Maho (2009) lists the next equally distinct languages inwards the Ovambo cluster: (A) Ovakwayama or Kwanyama grouping which include Kafima, Evale,

Mbandja, Mbalanhu, Ndongwena, Kwankwa, Dombondola, too Esinga; (B) Ndonga grouping which also include Kwambi, Ngandjera, Kwaluudhi too Kolonkadhi-Eunda.

There are 8 dialects, including the 2 written standards Kwanyama too Ndonga.

The next tabular array contains the names, areas, dialect names too the locations of the Ovambo tribes according to T. E. Tirronen's Ndonga-English Dictionary. The tabular array also contains information concerning which substantive degree of the Proto-Bantu linguistic communication the words belong to.

Area	Tribe	Dialect	Location
Classes 9 (*ny > on-), 11 (uu-/ou-)	Class 2 (*wa-, a-)	Class 7 (*ki > oshi-)
O-ndonga	Aa-ndonga	Oshi-ndonga	Southern Ovamboland
Uu-kwambi	Aa-kwambi	Oshi-kwambi	Central Ovamboland
O-ngandjera	Aa-ngandjera	Oshi-ngandjera	Central Ovamboland
Uu-kwaluudhi	Aa-kwaluudhi	Oshi-kwaluudhi	Western Ovamboland
O-mbalanhu	Aa-mbalanhu	Oshi-mbalanhu	Western Ovamboland
Uu-kolonkadhi	Aa-kolonkadhi	Oshi-kolonkadhi	Western Ovamboland
Ou-kwanyama	Ova-kwanyama	Oshi-kwanyama	Northern too Eastern Ovamboland, Angola
O-mbadja	Ova-mbadja	Oshi-mbadja	Angola, Shangalala vicinity

Sam Nujomah the showtime president of Namibia is Owambo man

History

Ovambo people are component of the Great Bantu Migration from West Africa too Central Africa through Great Lake surface area too farther downwards to Upper Zambezi too to afterwards migrated gradually to their acquaint locations inwards Namibia too Angola. Ovambo people met San too Khoikhoi people of Southern Africa. Ovambo people similar all the Bantu people brought Fe applied scientific discipline to Southern Africa too used it equally a superior weapon to pushed away the aboriginal tribes making to possible for them to occupy their land.

Ovambo men. Circa 1914

Colonial History

The Ovambo were dependent acre to colonial invasion from to a greater extent than than i European Earth at once. The Portuguese extended their colony inwards Republic of Angola equally far southward equally northern Ovamboland, whilst the Germans, too afterwards the South Africans, extended their influence over Namibia (formerly South West Africa) equally far equally southern Ovamboland. The borderline betwixt the 2 colonies thus ran straight through the ticker of the Ovambo region, disrupting the lives of the people there. Thus the Ovakwanyama were dependent acre to different too often conflicting administrative policies too law. The job was compounded past times the fact that the precise location of the border could non initially hold out agreed past times the European powers.

Ovambo old human smoking pipe. Circa 1910

According to Estermann (1976:52), Portugal too Federal Republic of Federal Republic of Germany drew the southern Republic of Angola border inwards 1886,

thus locating the Ovakwanyama, Ombadja, Dombondola, Kafima too Evale on the Portuguese side, and

leaving other Ovambo inwards northern Namibia. In 1890, however, the international boundary was adjusted, the novel line dividing the Kwanyama kingdom inwards 2 too leaving exactly i 3rd of their number inwards northern Namibia. The border has seen a farther 3 adjustments, each fourth dimension involving major motility of refugees to too fro, fleeing i or other of the colonial administrations (Totemeyer 1978:6, 35, 100, cited inwards Aarni 1982:23).

Group of Ovambo men inwards traditional dress. Circa 1910

Loeb (1962:37) informs us that inwards 1926 the status of the neutral zone betwixt Republic of Angola too Ovamboland

was submitted to arbitration too the zone awarded to Angola. The Assistant Native Commissioner’s

H.Q. for the South African authorities was moved from Namakunde to Oshikango (see Maps) exactly over the border. Loeb maintains that 40,000 Ovakwanyama, wishing to remain nether Union rule, moved southward to bring together the 20,000 already inwards Namibia, leaving 20,000 behind inwards Angola. Three quarters of the population were thus living inwards the smaller of the 2 Ovakwanyama regions, which moreover was characterised past times poorer grazing too wood areas. Border too colonial controls became increasingly restrictive, which farther hampered the indigenous economic scheme too civilization - the Portuguese, for example, refusing to allow the Namibian Kwanyama over the border to see their usual cattle grazing out-posts (Loeb 1962:43).

Ovamboland. Oshikango August 1935. Kwanyama "Tribal" coming together with Chief Native Commissioner too visitors

Traders, explorers too missionaries were the mainstay of early on European penetration, with the Portuguese too the Dutch visiting equally early on equally the 1400s too 1700s respectively. It was non until the 1880s, however, that colonial dominion inwards Namibia was formally established nether the Germans. At this fourth dimension the Ovambo were picayune affected, beingness so far north; dissimilar the Nama too the Herero who waged a bitter state of war of resistance against the Germans from 1904-7, suffering devastating blows to their population too economic scheme (Katjavivi 1988:5, 7-11).

The colonial province of affairs changed dramatically during the First World War, when the British requested

South African forces to invade Namibia too oust the Germans. This straight affected the Ovambo, equally from 1915 the ‘Northern Sector’ (Ovamboland, the Kaokoveld, Okavango too Caprivi) became to a greater extent than firmly administered past times the Union authorities than it ever had been nether High German rule. Federal Republic of Federal Republic of Germany lost Namibia inwards 1919 equally a effect of the Treaty of Versailles, too inwards 1921 the League of Nations entrusted Namibia equally a Mandate to the Union of South Africa, to hold out administered equally an integral component of it. The League of Nations was replaced past times the United Nations inwards 1946, too at that spot so began a long dispute betwixt this organisation too the South African authorities over the Mandate for Namibia. South Africa refused to recognise United Nations potency too insisted that the Mandate had lapsed with the dissolution of the League of Nations, thus allowing them to proceed with a constitutional evolution of Namibia (Tuupainen 1970:11; Katjavivi 1988:13). All intervening efforts of the International Court of Justice, the UN, too the indigenous peoples (e.g. SWAPO4) of the Earth proved relatively unsuccessful until the recent events leading to Namibia’s Independence inwards 1989.

North of the Namibian border, the Portuguese entered Kwanyama Earth around the cease of the seventeenth century (Lima 1977:31), too from 1844 long distance merchandise networks based on telephone substitution of ivory too slaves for firearms were established. The institution of to a greater extent than formal colonial influence was achieved much to a greater extent than slowly. From 1859 the Portuguese occupied a fort inwards Humbe, their regional uppercase beingness Mossamedes. They intended to occupy Ovamboland inwards monastic enjoin to protect southern Republic of Angola from High German encroachment from the south, too British encroachment from the east, but due to fiscal crises inwards both the colony too inwards Lisbon it was a protracted affair (Hayes 1988:2-3).

Two Owambo women from Namibia inwards traditional dress. Circa 1910

During the 1890s too 1900s the Portuguese had military machine brushes with the Ovambo but were non especially successful. The imminent military machine confrontation with Federal Republic of Federal Republic of Germany in conclusion justified the Portuguese authorities inwards sending a largely European column to Ovamboland inwards 1915. They were defeated past times the Germans inwards a border skirmish related to the outbreak of state of war inwards Europe, too retreated to the highlands. The Germans were unable to follow upwards this victory, howev er, equally they were attacked too defeated past times South African forces - an trial which changed the whole nature of the Portuguese expedition, too the chance was used to in conclusion subjugate the Ovakwanyama. King Mandume of Ukwanyama strongly resisted the colonising attempts of the Portuguese, too had tried to turn Portugal’s preoccupation with Federal Republic of Federal Republic of Germany to his political advantage, only to hold out thwarted past times the intervention of South African forces. They forced Mandume to cease hostilities too have got protection against the Portuguese, inwards homecoming for provisions for his famine stricken land - also paid for inwards the shape of a migrant labour furnish (Clarence-Smith & Moorsom 1977:108).

Kwanyama (Ovambo) daughter inwards headdress, Oshikuku. circa 1930

King Mandume had lost 5,000 people during battles with the Portuguese, too was forced to flee to

Kwanyama Earth inwards northern Namibia - which is when South Africa stepped in. Katjavivi (1988:1719) maintains that South African intervention sprang from their want to command northern Namibia too gear upwards the national boundary - hence their liason with the Portuguese. Henceforth, Ovamboland was watched closely past times the South African administration, because the Ukwambi equally good equally the Ovakwanyama resisted the potency of Native Commissioner Hahn5. By the 1930s the province of affairs had developed inwards such a way that the South Africans began to experience undermined, so they bombed the Ukwambi surface area inwards monastic enjoin to supress resistance.

Chief Ipumbu was deposed past times the Union inwards 1932 too banished, so the chieftaincy was abolished and

replaced past times a council of headmen appointed past times the Government.

Ovambo human too his wife. Circa 1910

As pointed out past times Clarence-Smith too Moorsom (1977:108), colonial strategy inwards Ovamboland was

concerned inwards a higher identify all with securing an abundant too reliable migrant labour forcefulness - especially for cardinal too southern Namibia. The Germans had been rattling keen on the occupation of Ovambo equally labourers on the extensive White-owned farms, too inwards the novel mines too other industries. The labour forcefulness was initially drawn from indigenous communities farther south, but with the opening of Tsumeb copper mine inwards 1906 too the Luderitz diamond mine inwards 1908, to a greater extent than Ovambo too other northern peoples were recruited on fixed term contracts. By 1910 some 10,000 Ovambo contract workers had come upwards southward for the mines, fisheries too railways.

Things were no ameliorate nether the South African government. White farmers were allocated the best

Earth too Namibians were relocated past times the Native Reserves Commission to the to a greater extent than northern semi-arid

regions, which were unsuitable for sustaining a much increased indigenous population. Moving to the

White areas equally migrant labourers was thus presented equally the only feasible solution to the job of population pressure level too express natural resources (land shortage too deforestation were an needlelike job past times the

mid twentieth century) (Clarence-Smith & Moorsom 1977:108; Katjavivi 1988:12, 14-15).

Ovambo people inwards their village. Circa 1910

The stagnation of the economic scheme of southern Republic of Angola correct upwards to the belatedly 1960s meant the mines of Namibia became the principal centre of emloyment for the population over a broad surface area of southern Republic of Angola (Clarence-Smith & Moorsom 1977:108). Estermann (1976:130-131) attributes the southward flow of migrant labourers to the fact that immature Ovambo men, unoccupied since the prohibition of warfare past times the the colonial Administrations after 1915, saw migrant labour equally an alternative pursuit. It tended to hold out the smaller Ovambo kingdoms who showtime sent men south, but presently all contributed to the operate force.

Ovambo adult woman inwards traditional dress. Circa 1910

Many who moved southward had often begun equally voluntary workers at the mission stations. Loeb (1962:38)

writes that only men formed the migrant labour force, women too children beingness forced to remain inwards their

identify areas too the men ordered to homecoming at to the lowest degree every 2 years.

The workers from Ovamboland were patently alongside the most exploited, equally compared with labourers

recruited from areas of southward Namibia. Ovambo were recruited past times the Northern Labour Organisation

agency (established 1925), too were destined mainly for Tsumeb copper mine too farm work. Recruits

were given a rudimentary medical exam too so divided into 3 categories of fitness: (a) for

clandestine operate inwards the mines, (b) for surface operate at the mines or heavy farm labour, too (c) for lighter

farm operate equally sheep too cattle herdsmen. Workers had no alternative inwards the thing at all, too hours, payment

too working weather condition were never specified (Katjavivi 1988:15-16).

Ovambo people

Economy

The domestic economic scheme of the Ovambo is organised principally around agriculture too pastoralism:

the onetime beingness the sphere of women, too the latter that of men. The footing of their diet is millet (Pennistetum spicatum) called oilia, which agency ‘the regulation food’. It withstands drought longer than other cereals, thrives inwards pitiable soils too stores for 2-3 years. Sorghum vulgare (oiliavala) is also grown; it is less hardy too requires ameliorate growing conditions, but is to a greater extent than highly prized.

Each married adult woman has her ain grain fields too vegetable garden adjoining the ehumbo, too co-wives operate together on the grain acre of their husband. The hubby must clear each of his wives’ fields prior to planting inwards Oct or Nov each year. Every ehumbo is equipped with its’ ain communal threshing too pounding areas (Estermann 1976:132-4).

Because of the extensive flooding which tin occur during the moisture season, crop fields are established

on specially prepared raised mounds too thus fed but non annihilated past times the ooshana (Hahn 1928:34). Loeb (1948:16) argues that the occupation of these raised beds has prevented European introduction of the plough, too inwards turn handicapped the missionaries inwards introducing monogamy: agriculture requiring many wiv es to hoe a plot of Earth too harvest the crops. In add-on to grain, various curcubits too peanuts: osimbutufukwa (Arachis hypogaea) too osifukwa (Voandzeia subterranea) are also grown.

The Owambo engage inwards herding of cattle (engobe) which is the responsibleness of men. The Rex manages the largest herds too those of other men vary inwards size depending on socio-economic status. Some men, ovanahambo, are without herds of their ain too await after the herds of others. Such a human is entrusted with most 40-50 caput of cattle which he takes to established grazing posts during the dry out season; he is usually immature too single All herdsmen know the grasses preferred past times cattle - those that fatten them easily. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 number of herbal remedies for cattle too for the herdsmen themselves are also known, too certainly herdsmen specialise inwards castration (Estermann 1976:136-137). Cattle are an extremely prestigious commodity, reflecting the wealth of the lineage (Hahn 1928:35)

Apart from cattle herding, most Owambo households ain a few goats too cattle, too occasionally a few pigs” (2). Also, “most houses have got chickens” too “when the rains come, the rivers to the due north inwards Republic of Angola overflow too overflowing the area, bringing fish, birds, too frogs.”

They brand too sell basketry too pottery.

Ovambo farmers

Sexual Division of Production

Males are responsible for edifice households too granaries (omaanda), clearing waterholes too fields, Fe production, the industry of all wooden items too enshroud goods, common salt procurement too hunting. Females are concerned with most kid care, all nutrient preparation, the production of baskets too pots, thatching of dwellings, the gathering of wild fruit too vegetables too the collection of H2O (Hahn 1928:25; Estermann 1976:143-5).

Owambo adult woman with her child

“It is the labor of the immature men to attend to the goats too cattle, taking them to discovery grazing areas during the day, too bringing them dorsum to the identify inwards the evening.”

Beautiful Ovambo girl

Fishing is a articulation enterprise, although the methods adopted past times men too past times women differ. Women actively fish with tall, conical baskets inwards the oshana pools, whereas men build traps across the narrower water-courses, consisting of weirs (olua) with conical baskets (omidiva) inwards the apertures (Estermann 1976:142).

Ovambo people

Land tenure:

“ If someone wanted to leave of absence some of his belongings to his married adult woman or children, he could sell it to them

for a nominal price. After he had informed his maternal kin of the transaction, they could no longer claim that item component of the husband’s belongings after his death. Today, the Namibian constitution protects the window too the children from such inheritance mistreatments. When a adult woman died, her belongings was inherited past times her children, woman parent or other to a greater extent than distant matrilineal relatives”

Ovambo youth

Ovambo Settlement too Social Structure

Each Ovambo grouping (kingdom) occupies its’ ain surface area inside the Ovambo part equally a whole. Estermann (1976:51) writes that tracts of no-man’s-land, several kilometres inwards depth, used to separate i kingdom from another. The institution of homes was traditionally prohibited inside these zones of wood or bush, which were quite discernible inwards the 1920s. By the 1950s (Estermann’s fourth dimension of writing), however, people were starting to occupy the buffer zones, leading to their virtual obscurity.

The surface area occupied past times i grouping is known equally oshilongo (country) falling traditionally nether the jurisdiction of the Rex (ohamba) or paramount chief. However, inwards monastic enjoin to homecoming it to a greater extent than manageable, the oshilongo is sub-divided into districts - omikunda (omukunda sing.) - which are governed past times omalenga, district heads too counsellors of the king. They are appointed past times the Rex too are responsible to him. Women equally good equally men could hold out district-heads, for instance the king’s woman parent ever had her ain large district some distance from the king. About 15-20 households were established inside an omukunda, with distances betwixt them ranging from 500 m upwards to 3 km or to a greater extent than (Loeb 1962:42; Tuupainen 1970:16; Williams 1988:460).

The Ovambo household (ehumbo) is a self-contained economical unit, although cooperation between

them during weeding too harvesting is common, equally is the sharing of cattle herding betwixt morn too eve milking (Williams 1988:48). It is a large, roughly circular, construction composed of several huts too living areas separated from i some other past times tall wooden or millet stem palisades. Palisades also shape intricate connecting passageways which allow access to the various areas. In the centre is a large coming together surface area (olupale), too around the exterior are fenced areas for the cattle.

Ovambo wedding

The entire construction is enclosed inside a thick wooden palisade most 6-10 ft inwards superlative (Hahn 1928:10; Williams 1988:45). It is occupied past times a polygamous household unit of measurement unit comprising usually a husband, 2-4 wives too all their children. It was non uncommon, however, for other kin members to reside at that spot equally good - especially newly married couples with no ehumbo of their own. Each married adult woman has her ain cooking facilities too nutrient storage surface area inwards her living quarters, too her children alive with her until old plenty to get hitched with (girls) or displace into the cattle pens with other adolescent boys. Ovambo matrimony is preferentially based on clan exogamy too kingdom endogamy, although marriages betwixt members of 2 different Ovambo kingdoms are non uncommon. The scheme of descent is matrilineal.

dancing Owambo people

Political system/Structure

Each tribe has a principal that is responsible for the tribe, although many have got converted to running tribal affairs with a council of headmen. Members of the regal household unit of measurement of the Owamboland are known equally aakwanekamba too only those who belong to this household unit of measurement past times nativity have got a claim to chieftainship. Because descent is matrilineal, these relations must autumn on the mother's side. The chief's ain sons have got no claim inwards the regal family. They grow upwards equally regular members of the tribe.”

The importance of the Rex equally guardian too benefactor of his Earth is reflected inwards the symbolism of

the nations sacred fire, omilo guoshilongo, built only of omufyati (Colophospermum mopane) wood too which permanently smouldered inwards the regal residence. It was believed that terrible misfortune would befall the whole Earth if this flame were allowed to expire out during the king’s lifetime, too so 2 specially appointed elders, atonateli yomilo, were charged with constantly tending it. The flame symbolised the life of the king, which inwards turn symbolised the life of the nation; only when the Rex died was the flame allowed to extinguish naturally too a novel i kindled for his successor. All regal subjects established their ain domestic fires with embers taken from the sacred fire, the monastic enjoin inwards which they were received depending on status (e.g. the omalenga received theirs before other householders) (Hahn 1928:17-18).

The Rex too his omalenga aimed to ensure economical too social stability throughout the kingdom:

settling disputes, for example. The Rex also managed the kingdom’s economical year, past times ritually inaugurating the agricultural too herding seasons, fruit picking too line-fishing seasons, the annual expeditions for common salt or iron, too the national large game hunts. Dates for house-moving too for major ceremonies similar the efundula woman someone transition rites, are also given past times the Rex (Loeb 1948:71-75; A. & D. Powell-Cotton 1937a).

Not all kings, however, proved to hold out benefactors of their people, too at that spot are reports of autocratic, despotic kings who ignored the advice of their elders too terrorised their subjects (e.g. regard Hahn 1928:8). Such kings were often eventually displaced past times competition candidates with pop back upwards (Clarence-Smith 1979:79). Though, to claim, equally many missionary too colonial administrative sources have, that all Ovambo kings were brutal despots, is both slanderous too misleading. The catholic missionary Estermann, for example, writes: "There is no dubiety that the most perfect too absolute despotism prevailed almost everywhere" (1976:124), yet this sentiment is based on the memoirs of South African soldiers similar W.B. de Witt, who clearly had a vested involvement inwards denouncing the indigenous scheme of authorities inwards monastic enjoin to justify imposition of colonial rule.

It is truthful that Ovambo kingdoms did non ever peacefully co-exist too were non ever internally

stable, but the disputes over cattle, Earth too H2O rights, too refugees seeking assylum, were non the production of internal dynamics alone. Rather, equally argued past times Katjavivi (1988:3-4), such conflict tin hold out seen equally the production of wider socio-economic changes, whereby external stimuli (trade too contact with Europeans) have got interacted with internal social dynamics. The effect was intensification of social stratification during the belatedly nineteenth century, which saw the strengthening of a dominant ruling elite (chiefly omalenga) who exacted tribute (cattle, grain) from the people, too who encouraged the evolution of ivory too slave trading. Tribute too slaves were traded with Europeans for prestigious commodities similar horses too guns.

Eventually, the traditional Ovambo shape of authorities was replaced past times a colonial scheme of indirect

rule, imposed past times the Portuguese inwards southern Republic of Angola too past times the South Africans inwards northern Namibia. Loeb (1948:19) states that nether the Mandate of South Africa the Ovambo inwards Namibia were governed past times groups of headmen, or a single chief, who were advised too directed past times Government officials. Only one-half of the kingdoms soundless had kings inwards 1948. In Ukwanyama kingship ended inwards 1917, when King Mandume was shot past times Union forces; headmen too sub-headmen replaced the monarchy. Chieftainship was hereditary too continued to hold out based on matrilineal succession (as alongside the Ondonga, Ongandjera too Ukwaludhi, for example), whereas headmen were but appointed past times Government administrators (Tuupainen 1970:17).

Inheritance patterns

“Each tribe has a principal that is responsible for the tribe, although many have got converted to running tribal affairs with a council of headmen. Members of the regal household unit of measurement of the Owamboland are known equally aakwanekamba too only those who belong to this household unit of measurement past times nativity have got a claim to chieftainship. Because descent is matrilineal, these relations must autumn on the mother's side. The chief's ain sons have got no claim inwards the regal family. They grow upwards equally regular members of the tribe.”

Parent-offspring interactions too conflict:

Conflict non mentioned. Parents seem to hold out unopen to their children. “The traditional identify is built equally a grouping of huts surrounded past times a fence of large vertical poles. Some families also build a Western-style cement block edifice inside the home. Each hut to a greater extent than often than non has a different purpose, such equally a bedroom, storeroom, or kitchen. Most families collect H2O from a nearby world tap.”

Ovambo elderberry from Namibia

Religious Belief

Traditionally, the Owambo people lived a life that was highly influenced past times their mystico-religious influences. They non only believed inwards skillful too evil spirits but also they are influenced past times peachy superstitions. Most members of the Owambo tribe believe inwards a supreme spirit, known equally Kalunga. This spirit is known to pick out the shape of a human too displace invisibly alongside the people. This spirit is rattling of import to the tribe.

When the tribe is visited with a famine or pestilence it is the responsibleness of the Kalunga to aid the people along. Beliefs alongside the Owambo people centre around their belief inwards Kalunga. For example, when a tribe fellow member wants to larn into the chief's kraal, they must showtime take away their sandals. It is said that if this someone does non take away their sandals it volition convey decease to i of the regal inmates too throw the kraal into mourning. Another belief deals with burning flame inwards the chief's kraal. If the flame burns out, the principal too the tribe volition disappear. An of import ceremony takes identify at the cease of the harvest, where the entire community has a feast too celebrates.

The Ovambo believed economical success to hold out closely boundary upwards with the well-being of the king. He

was usually refered to equally omwene wosilongo (holder/guardian of the land), too was believed to guarantee fertility too prosperity to the land because of his lineage connections with the powerful regal ancestral spirits, equally good equally his association with Kalunga the Creator (Loeb 1962:41). Major calamities, such equally drought too pestilence, were usually attributed to the wrath of the regal ancestors who had been made angry past times the unsociable demeanor of the living. The Rex too his regal elders (ovakulunhu) were responsible for communicating with the regal ancestors on the nation’s behalf, too vice versa.

Owambo people

Passage rituals (birth, death, puberty, seasonal)

“Rituals dealt with the transition betwixt girlhood too womanhood inwards Ovambo societies on the northern floodplain, grappling with issues of sexual activity too death, generation too regeneration, too its implications were understood to covert the entire social body.” Male circumcision has been present. “Cows play a especially of import role inwards funeral rituals, too. When an Ovambo human dies, his body must remain inwards the theatre for at to the lowest degree i twenty-four hr menses before burial, during which fourth dimension all his pets must hold out killed.

Traditional Ovambo compounds, called kraals, have got gates used past times both cattle too humans. At death, the Ovambo believe that the possessor may non transcend through this gate, or the cattle volition expire too the kraal volition come upwards to ruin. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 novel hole is cutting for him to transcend through. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 bull is slaughtered, cooked without crude or flavoring of whatever kind, too a portion is eaten past times everyone inwards the village. Then the kraal too all its contents must hold out moved at to the lowest degree 50 feet (15 meters). The cattle are non permitted to remainder on the same Earth that witnessed the decease of their owner.”

A immature Ovanmbo adult woman inwards a picayune viallage close Oshakati, inwards Namibia. miguel-pereira

Male Circumcision

According to information provided past times a High German author Hermann Tonjes (1949), spell Owambo communities historically used to practise circumcision, it was applied to adults, but reserved for nobility, the wealthy too to those inwards high role serving the King. During those days, traditional circumcisers used to accuse substantial fees for their services. There were also some cases of decease due to circumcision. Young men who qualified for circumcision (“etanda” inwards Oshiwambo) were escorted past times their fathers to the identify where the circumcision was to pick out place, known equally “oshombo” or “ontanda”. Circumcision was seen to hold out a physical too spiritual intervention. In terms of the latter, circumcision linked the immature human to the spiritual world of his ancestors to secure his fertility. Male initiation rituals, “etanda”, or circumcision belonged to the recognised tradition of all Owambo societies of Northern Namibia too it is only from Ongandjera that nosotros have got no descriptions of it. At some betoken inwards fourth dimension at that spot does seem to have got been circumcision at that spot too, judging from the hollo of the calendar month of July, “mupita omulumentu”, which translates equally “the coming out of men” (elc Nameja, 1385:1934). This was the fourth dimension of twelvemonth when circumcision camps were held inwards other Owambo societies. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 number of neighbouring communities of the Owambo also undertook the practice; the Nyaneka-Nkhumbi, the pastoralist groups of the Herero, the Chokwe, the Zimba, the Hakavona, the Kwanyoka, the Himba too the Kuvale (Estermann, 1981:32 too 1979:50). These neighbours were historically linked to the Owambo. The Nyaneka-Nkhumbi are held to hold out ‘the progenitors’ of certainly Owambo kingdoms, including Uukwambi, Ombalantu too Ongandjera (Williams, 1991:30, 31). In 1949, Seppo Teinonen, a Finnish theologian, compiled the available information on circumcision alongside the Owambo. His résumé, presented below, shows that at that spot had been a peachy bargain of variation inwards the custom. Male initiation was called “ohango jaalumentu”. According to Tönjes it was abolished inwards Uukwanyama inwards the years 1885–1890 too before than that inwards Ondonga. Hans Schinz, who travelled inwards the surface area inwards 1884–1887, said, circumcision was inwards practise inwards Ondonga before (Teinonen 1949). For several reasons, Teinonen found it hard to give an exact description of the ritual equally rattling picayune has been written on dependent acre matter. Most of the information is secondary, too the practices vary from i gild to some other (Teinonen1949:24).

Adornment

Body paint: Other tribes inwards this surface area occupation ochre, a reddish pigment extracted from Fe ore too smear it all over their bodies.

Piercings: “Women wearable elaborate braids too copper or leather bands around their necks, making their figures seem rattling elongated.”

Scarification: “Women wearable elaborate braids too copper or leather bands around their necks, making their figures seem rattling elongated.”

Kwanyama daughter inwards headdress, Oshikuku

Adornment (beads, feathers, lip plates, etc.): “Women wearable elaborate braids too copper or leather bands around their necks, making their figures seem rattling elongated.”

Owambo braid hairstyle. Circa 1920

Death too afterlife beliefs:

“At death, the Ovambo believe that the possessor may non transcend through this gate, or the cattle volition expire too the kraal volition come upwards to ruin. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 novel hole is cutting for him to transcend through.”

source:dice.missouri.edu › docs › niger-congo‎
lucy.ukc.ac.uk › csacpub › davies_thesis

Jen inwards Ovambo traditional attire holding mitt with her friend. http://jeninnamibia.blogspot.com/

Ovambo woman

are an amalgamation of various agricultural Bantu OVAMBO (OWAMBO) PEOPLE: THE AGRICULTURAL AND POWERFUL BANTU PEOPLE OF NAMIBIA AND ANGOLA AND THE LARGEST ETHNIC GROUP IN NAMIBIA

"Ovambo women, Ondonga, South West Africa" | From the publication "The night continent; Africa, landscape too people" Hugo Adolf Bernatzik, 1931

For centuries the Ngandjera too Kwaluudhi have got occupied the western regions of the surface area formerly known equally Ovamboland. In the past times the coiffures worn past times their girls too women were of such stunning beauty that they were known far beyond their tribal areas.

As a effect of the increasing activities of missionaries, migrant labour too the influences of the Administration, the old wearing clothing pattern gradually disappeared too already during the 1960s rattling picayune was left of it. The oshikoma too iipando headdress of Ngandjera women was soundless worn during the 1970s inwards the shape of wigs.

ca. 1940s | Photo: A. Schertz, Collection Antje Otto

Ovambo woman. Circa 1910

Two Mbalantu (Wambo group) women whose braids have got been lengthened to their ankles through the occupation of sinew (eefipa) extensions. Namibia, | © M. Schettler, 1940s

source:http://www.pinterest.com/MonikaEttlin/africa-pre-1975-southern-africa/